The political organization of the region was basically a
collection of city-states. Sargon of Agade (2371-16 BCE) united the
regions of Sumer and Akkad. His descendants eventually lost control
of the empire due to pressures from the Hurrians, the Hittites, and
other invaders, not to mention internal pressures. In the south Sumer
again gained ascendancy, dominated by the city-state Ur. Sumer then
collapsed under the Amorites around 2000 BCE. They established many sub-
kingdoms including Assyria and Babylon.
Assyria attained a brief period of dominance under Shamshi-Adad
(1813-1781 BCE) but was soon superseded by Babylon under Hammurapi
(Hammurabi) (1792-50 BCE) who established what
once were thought to be the first written law codes (more recent
discoveries include law codes from a couple centuries prior to Hammurapi).
The first Babylonian dynasty had begun in 1894 BCE, coinciding
with the Old Babyonian period of literature. It collapsed in 1595
BCE when the Hittites sacked its eponymous capital.
Meanwhile, Babylon had been reasserting itself. Nabopalasar had begun the
Chaldean dynasty during his rule begining in 625 BCE. This period is
also known as the Neo-Babylonian period although that term
also describes the language of that era. Under Nabopalasar's son
Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon expanded westward, taking Jerusalem in 586 BCE.
Babylon fell in the mid-540's to Cyrus the Persian whose empire lasted
until the late 300's BCE when Alexander of Macedon established his empire
and renamed the area "Mesopotamia". (See also Shawn Bayern's
History
Babylonia)
- Ellil (Enlil) -
Sumerian for "wind/storm-god".
- Initially the leader
of the pantheon, he has since relinquished his spot to Anu. Possible
slayer of Enmesharra and avenger of his father Anu. His role in this
was upplanted by Marduk by the Babylonians. He is a short-tempered god
who was responsible for the great flood. He is the creator of mankind.
He is thought to favor and help those in need. He guards the "tablets
of destiny", which allow him to determines the fate of all things
animate or inanimate. They was once stolen from him by a Zu, a storm-
bird (a bird with some human qualities). They were recovered and Zu
faced judgment by Ellil. His consort is Ninlil, his chief-minister is
Nusku. He was also god of the lands and of the earth. He is a "King of
the Anunnaki". He was their counselor warrior. He and his people
receive the earth in 'Atrahasis'. His temple is Duranki.
When the Igigi rebelled against him, and surrounded his house and
called for Anu. After man was created in response to the Igigi's
grievances, he grew weary of their noise and released several disasters
upon them, after each one, man recovered and then he released a new one.
The disasters included disease, flood, drought, and the great flood. He
appointed Humbaba to guard the cedar forest and terrify
mankind. He decreed that Enkidu must die for the
slaying of the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba. He does not answer Gilgamesh's plea to restore Enkidu to life. He
found a throne for Etana to rule from in Kish. He
appointed Anzu as the guardian of his bath chamber,
but while bathing, Anzu stole from him the Tablet of Destinies, and his
Ellil-power. Ninurta, with Ea's advise
and Belet-ili's urgings slew Anzu and recovered
the Tablet of Destinies. (See also the Hittite Ellil)
Symbol: Seven small circles representing the Pleiades.
Sacred number: 50
Astrological region: north of "the way of Anu" ie. 12 degrees
north of the equator.
- Ea (Enki, Nudimmud)
- - god of the waters. He is in charge of the
bolt which bars the sea. He knows everything. He is the "Lord of
Wisdom" and "Lord of Incantations". When he speaks, of a thing, it will
be made. He is the son of Anu, but sometimes he is
the son of Anshar.
Dumkina is his consort. He created Zaltu as a complement to Ishtar.
He discovered the plot of Apsu and Mummu, put Apsu under a sleeping
spell, and slew him and put Mummu into a daze, tied him up, and slew
him. He then named his quarters Apsu, the underworld ocean that
supports the world. He and Damkina produced Bel and
Marduk. (Bel is likely to be another name for
Marduk.)
He learned that Tiamat was planning a war of
revenge against the gods. His father Anshar tries to spur him into making
the first attack against Tiamat, but Ea rebuffs him. When Anu's peace
mission fails, he urges Marduk into action.
He suggests the method of creating man, in response to the heavy
workload of the Igigi. As mankind's patron, he is the instructor of all
crafts, writing, building, farming, and magic. He advises mankind when
other gods would do them harm. He granted Adapa
understanding, to teach mankind. When Adapa used this knowledge to break
the wing of the South Wind, he cursed him and told him to complain of Dumuzi and Gizzida's
absence to Anu. While in Anu's court, he advises Adapa not to eat the
bread of eternal life (lest he forfeit his life on earth). He refuses
to flood mankind for Ellil. Eventually he accedes,
but only after advising Atrahasis to build a
boat in which to weather the flood.
He tells Nergal to allow Enkidu's spirit to visit with Gilgamesh. When Ea is informed of Ishtar's imprisonment in the Underworld, he creates
'His appearance is bright' to stand at Ereshkigal's gate and mellow her mood and have her
swear an oath by the great gods. He instructs Nergal on how to build the
gift throne for Ereshkigal, and hides him with spring water to hide him
from Namtar after he returned
from the underworld.
When Anu and the gods could not locate a volunteer to kill Anzu, he
told the Igiggi that he would pick one. He instructs Belet-ili/Mami to
send Ninurta to slay Anzu and, through Sharur advises Ninurta on how to
defeat the creature. (See also the Canaanite Heyan aka
Kothar-u-Khasis and the Hittite Ayas)
Symbol: Ram's head; goat-fish (a goat's head on a fish's body)
Sacred number: 40
Astrological region: 12 degrees south in the sky (includes Pisces
and Aquarius)
- Mummu
- - the craftsman god. He is attendant to Ea and Apsu's vizier.
He is very fond of Apsu and colludes with him to disperse the younger
gods when they disturb Tiamat, even after Tiamat rejects the plan. Ea
found out about his plan, enspelled him and tied him up.
- Qingu (older spelling - Kingu)
- - Tiamat's battle leader and second
husband/lover after Apsu. He is promoted and enhanced
to a leading position from among the ranks. Tiamat places the Tablet of
Destinies in his possession, giving him the Anu-power, such that his word is law and affects
reality. He gives his army fire-quenching breath and paralyzing
venom. His battle strategy initially confuses Marduk. He is defeated by Marduk and counted among
the dead gods. For his part in the war he was made by Marduk to provide
the blood for the creation of man - filling the role that Geshtu-e takes in other versions of the creation of
man story.
- Sin (Nannar)
- - moon god, son of Enlil. He has a beard of Lapis
Lazuli and rides a winged bull. His consort is Ningal. He is the
father of Shamash. He does not answer Gilgamesh's plea to restore
Enkidu to life.
Symbol: Crescent
Sacred number: 30
Sphere of influence: the moon, calendars, vegetation, cattle
fertility
- Ningal
- - the consort of Sin, the mother of Shamash
- Ishtar (Ishhara, Irnini, Inanna)
-
| She is Anu's second
consort,
daughter of Anu and Antum,
(sometimes daughter of Sin), and sometimes
the sister of Ereshkigal. She is the goddess
of love, procreation, and war. She is armed with a quiver and bow. Her
temples have special
prostitutes of both genders. She is often accompanied by a lion, and
sometimes rides it. The Eanna in Uruk is dedicated both to her and Anu.
As Irnini, she has a parakku (throne-base) at the cedar mountain.
"The Descent of Ishtar to the Underworld"
She determines to go to the Underworld. She threatened to smash
the gate and raise the dead so that they would eat and outnumber the
living unless the gatekeeper would open it for her. She holds the great
keppu-toy (a whipping top). She is allowed in by the gate keeper, who
takes her through seven gates to Ereshkigal's
realm. By Ereshkigal's rites, she is stripped of items of clothing as
she passes through each of the gates: first her crown, then her earrings,
then her necklace, then her tudditu (breast pins), then her belt of
birthstones, then her wrist and ankle bangles, and finally her
garment. While in the underworld, no creatures engaged in acts of
procreation. She was kept in Egalgina and brought forth by Namtar after being sprinkled with the water of life,
and after 'His appearance is bright' has been cursed. She is led back out
through the gates, given back her accouterments, and released in exchange
for Dumuzi (Tammuz). |
(Image from the Oriental Institute at U. Chicago) |
"The Epic of Gilgamesh"
She
loved Tammuz in her youth, although he spends half
the year in the nether world wailing. She loved a lion, a stallion, a
shepherd, all of whom she required great sacrifice from and abandoned.
She loved Ishullanu, a gardener who offered her fruit, but was taken
aback when she revealed herself to him, so she turned him into a frog.
After Gilgamesh cleans himself up, following
his defeat of Humbaba,
she asks him to be her lover and husband, and offers him many gifts and
the homage of earthly rulers and kingdoms. She is rejected, both
because of her godly nature, and as a fair-weather lover. Ishtar asks
Anu to send the Bull of Heaven to kill Gilgamesh, and he agrees.
(See also the Hittite Shaushka
and the Canaanite Astarte
and Anat)
Symbol: an eight or sixteen-pointed star
Sacred number: 15
Astrological region: Dibalt (Venus) and the Bowstar (Sirius)
Sacred animal: lion, (dragon)
- Siduri
- - the barmaid, a manifestation of Ishtar who
dwells at the lip of the sea, beyond which is the Land of Life, where Utnapishtim lives. She speaks with Gilgamesh. She wears a veil.
- Shamash (Babbar, Utu)
- Shamash is the sun god, the son of Sin and Ningal. He rises from the mountains with rays out of
his shoulders. He enters and exits the underworld through a set of gates
in the mountain (exits from Mt. Mashu, "Gilgamesh IX ii") guarded by
scorpion-people. He travels both on foot and in a chariot, pulled by
fiery mules. He upholds truth, and justice. He is a lawgiver and
informs oracles. Nergal is a corrupt aspect of his
nature.
"Etana"
In Kish, the eagle and the serpent swore an oath to Shamash that they
would not overstep the limits of Shamash. The eagle broke the oath and
ate the eggs of the serpent. Shamash, 'whose net is as wide as earth',
told the serpent how to serve the eagle justice. The serpent lured the
eagle with a bull carcass and captured him. The eagle requested to be
spared and the serpent refused, saying that Shamash's punishment would
fall on him if he did not carry it out. He cut the eagle's wings and
left him to die in a pit. The eagle prayed to Shamash for mercy, and
Shamash refused to help personally, but sent Etana
to help the eagle. He agreed to help Etana's infertility problem if
Etana would help the eagle.
"Epic of Gilgamesh"
He loves Gilgamesh, hates evil and instigates
Gilgamesh's quest against Humbaba, guiding him and
receiving prayers from him along the way. He tries to intercede to Ellil on Enkidu's behalf, but is
unsuccessful. He rebukes Enkidu for cursing the Stalker and the temple
prostitute for bringing him out of the wild.
See also the Hittite Sun-god
and the Canaanite Shapshu.
Symbol: Solar disk with a four point star inside with rays
coming from between the points. A winged disk.
Sacred Number: 20
- Aia
- - Shamash's consort
- Kakka
- Anshar and Anu's vizier, who is sent to Kurnugi to deliver
Ereshkigal the message that Anu wishes to deliver a gift to her via one
of her messengers. Anshar sends him to round up Lahmu and Lahamu to
send off Marduk for his battle with Tiamat and rally them to his side.
- Ninlil
- Ellil's consort. (see also Sumerian Ninlil.)
- Nusku
- the god of fire and Ellil's vizier.
- Gerra(Gibil)
- - the god of fire, Anunitu (Antu)'s son. He despairs
and will not attack Anzu after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies
from Ellil.
- Ishum (Hendursanga - 'lofty mace')
- - He is the god of fire, and is
adept at using weapons. He lights the way in front of Erra and the
Sebitti. He advises Erra against attacking Marduk or his people in
Babylon. When Erra takes Marduk's seat, Ishum persuades him against
destroying Babylon, finally appeasing him by promising that the other
gods would acknowledge themselves as his servants.
- Kalkal
- - Ellil's doorkeeper in Nippur.
- Dumkina
- - Ea's lover, mother of Bel and Marduk (note Bel is likely to
be another title for Marduk).
- Nash (Nanshe)
- - one of "the pure goddesses", Ea's daughter. Her cult
center is Sirara near Lagash.
- Zaltu
- - "strife", goddess created by Ea to complement Ishtar.
- Ninurta (shares some characteristics with Ningrisu)
- - Chamberlain of
the Anunnaki, the war god, the champion of the land. He is the child of
Ellil and Mami. He was born in Ekur, Ellil's temple in Ekur. He is
responsible for some small scale irrigation. He has a bow and arrow,
sometimes they are poisoned. He also carries the mace, Sharur, which can
act as a messenger between Ninurta and other beings (notably Ea). He
can marshal the Seven of Battle, who can generate whirlwinds.
He bound the Mountain of Stones in his fury, conquered the Anzu with
his weapon and slew the bull-man inside the Sea. (Dalley p. 204).
After the Tablet of Destinies was stolen, Belit-ili, at Ea's advice,
instructed him to kill Anzu. Initially his assault was futile, but
Sharur relayed advise from Ea to him, which, when it was carried out
allowed him to slay Anzu in a great onslaught. He recovered the Tablet
of Destinies for Ellil. Nissaba performs a purification ceremony on him
and he receives the following new names and shrines: Duku - 'holy mound'
in Sumerian, Hurabtil - an Elamite god, Shushinak - patron god of the
Elamite city Susa, Lord of the Secret, Pabilsag - god of the
antediluvian city Larak, Nin-Azu - god of Eshunna, Ishtaran - god of
Der, Zababa -warrior god of Kish, Lugalbanda - Gilgamesh's father,
Lugal-Marada - patron god of Marad, Warrior Tishpak - similar to Nin-
Azu, Warrior of Uruk, Lord of the Boundary-Arrow, Panigara - a warrior
god, and Papsukkal - vizier of the great gods.
- Ninsun
- - 'the great wild cow', the great queen, Gilgamesh's mother
and Lugalbanda's mate. She is wise, 'knows everything' and interprets
Gilgamesh's dreams. She offers incense and drink to Shamash and
questions his decision to send Gilgamesh against Humbaba. When doing
so, she wears a circlet on her head and an ornament on her breast. She
adopts Enkidu prior to the quest against Humbaba.
- Marduk
- - son of Ea and Dumkina. He supplants the other Babylonian
deities to become the central figure of their pantheon. He is a "King
of the Igigi" He often works with and asks questions of his father. He
has fifty names many of which are those of other deities whose
attributes he usurped. He was of proud form and piercing stare, born
mature, powerful, and perfect and superior. He has four eyes, four
ears, and emits fire from his mouth when he speaks. He is also gifted
in magic.
Anu gave him the four winds to play with. When Anu's peace mission to
Tiamat fails, Ea urges him into action. He goes before Anshar and the
divine assembly and declares that he will defeat Tiamat and lay her head
at his feet, but that the assembly must promise that he should be the
one to fix fates and more or less assume the role of the leader of the
pantheon. Anshar, Lahamu, and Anu find him a shrine and Anu
instills upon him the Anu-power in which, his word decrees fate. He is
proclaimed king and invested with the scepter, throne, and staff-of-
office. He is given an unfaceable weapon, the flood-weapon. He takes a
bow and arrow and mace. He puts lightning in front of him, marshals his
winds, makes a net to encircle Tiamat, fills his body with flame. He
rides his storm-chariot driven by Slayer, Pitiless, Racer, and Flyer,
poison-toothed, tireless steeds. He had a spell on his lips and an anti-
toxin in his hand. He led the gods to battle. (P.251-252 Dalley)
Qingu's strategy confused him. Tiamat tried to
enspell him and wheedled at him. Marduk reproaches her and calls her out
for single combat. She looses her temper and they fight. He unleashes
his weapons at her, distended her body with winds, shot her in the belly
with an arrow, split her in two and slit her heart. He defeats the rest
of her forces and retrieves the Tablet of Destinies.
He smashed Tiamat's skull to herald her death and made half of her
body the roof of the sky. He leveled Apsu, measured it and established
numerous shrines for many of the gods. He set up stands for the gods,
constructed the heavens and regulated the year, giving Shamash some
dominion over the months and the year. He made the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers from Tiamat's eyes and made mountains from her udders. He
smashed the weapons of Tiamat's army and put images of them at the gates
to the underworld. He set up his temple at Esharra and his seat in
Babylon. The gods honored him as king. He put blood and bones together
as and made early man to bear the work of the gods, as in Atrahasis.
For Qingu's part in the war he was made to provide the blood for the
creation of man. He divided the Anunnaki and placed 300 to guard the
sky, and six hundred to dwell in heaven and earth. He had them create
Babylon building the Esagalia temple and a high ziggurat. Anshar gave
him many new names: 1. Asarluhi, 2. Marduk, 3. The Son, The Majesty of
the Gods, 4. Marukka, 5. Mershakushu, 6. Lugal-dimmer-ankia (King of
heaven and earth), 7. Bel, 8. Nari-lugal-dimmer-ankia, 9. Asarluhi, 10.
Namtila, 11. Namru, 12. 'Asare, 13. Asar-alim, 14. Asar-alim-nuna, 15.
Tutu, 16. Zi-ukkina, 17. Ziku, 18. Agaku, 19. Shazu, 20. Zisi, 21.
Suhrim, 22. Suhgurim, 23. Zahrim, 24. Zahgurim, 25. Enbilulu, 26.
Epadun, 27. Gugal, 28. Hegal, 29. Sirsir, 30. Malah, 31. Gil, 32.
Gilima, 33. Agilima, 34. Zulum, 35. Mummu, 36. Zulum-ummu, 37. Gizh-
numun-ab, 38. Lugal-ab-dubur, 39. Pagal-guena, 40. Lugal-Durmah, 41.
Aranuna, 42. Dumu-duku, 43. Lugal-duku, 44. Lugal-shuanna, 45. Iruga,
46. Irqingu, 47. Kinma, 48. Kinma, 49. E-sizkur, 50. Addu, 51. Asharu,
52. Neberu, 53. Enkukur. He becomes a firm lawgiver and judge who, when
angered is not stoppable.
Later he becomes somewhat negligent and Erra
challenges him by preparing to attack his people in Babylon. He
responds to the challenge by saying that he already killed most of the
people in the flood and would not do so again. He also states that no-
one would be in control of things if he got off of his throne to work up
a flood, to which Erra volunteers to run things from Marduk's throne.
- Bel (Canaanite Baal)
- Cleverest of the clever and sage of the gods, he is the child
of Ea and Dumkina. This name
(meaning 'lord') is most likely referring to Marduk.
- Ashur (A-sir, Arusar, A-shar, Assur)
- god of Assyria and war. He is a "King of the Igigi"
Symbol: winged disk enclosing upper body, while he shoots an
arrow.
- Shullat
- - Shamash's servant.
- Papsukkal
- - vizier of the Great Gods, son of Sin. While Ishtar was
in the Underworld, he became gloomy and informed Sin and Ea of this
plight.
- Hanish
- - the weather god's servant.
- Adad (the Canaanite Hadad, the Sumerian Ishkur, the Hurrian Teshub, the Canaanite/Egyptian Resheph,
Rimmon)
- a storm god, Anu's son. He
holds a lightning bolt in his right hand and an axe in his left. He is
partially responsible for the flood. He despairs and will not attack
Anzu after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies
from Ellil.
Sacred number: 6
Sacred animal: Bull
- Shara
- - Anu and Ishtar's son. He despairs and will not attack Anzu
after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Ellil.
- Nin-ildu
- - the carpenter god. He carries the pure axe of the sun.
- Gushkin-banda
- - creator of god and man, goldsmith god.
- Nin-agal
- - 'lord strong-arm' patron god of smiths. He chews copper
and makes tools.
- Ereshkigal (Allatu)
- - the supreme goddess of the underworld.
Nergal is her consort. She is often considered Ishtar's sister. When
angered, her face grows livid and her lips grow black.
She doesn't know why Ishtar would visit her, but she allows her in,
according to the ancient rites. She instructs Namtar to release his
diseases upon Ishtar. When 'His appearance is bright' tries to get her
to swear an oath, she curses him. She has Namtar release Ishtar in
exchange for Dumuzi.
Anu sends Kakka to her with a message and then sends Nergal to give
her a throne upon which she is to sit and give judgment. She offers
Nergal food, drink, a foot bath, and entices him with her body.
Eventually he succumbs and they sleep with each other for seven days.
She is enraged when he wishes to leave. She sends Namtar to heaven to
request that Anu, Ellil, and Ea send Nergal to her as one of the few
favors she has ever had. If they do not, she will raise the dead and
they will eat and outnumber the living. Nergal is brought back. In some
versions of the myth, Nergal takes control of Namtar's attendant demons
and grabs Ereshkigal by the hair. In this position she proposes
marriage to him. In both versions they are married. (See also Sumerian Ereshkigal and the Hittite Lelwanis)
- Belit-tseri
- tablet-scribe of the underworld. She kneels before
Ereshkigal.
- Namtar(a)
- - the Fate-Cutter, Ereshkigal's messenger and vizier, the
herald of death. He commands sixty diseases, which are grouped by the
part of the body which they affect. Offerings to him may stave off
diseases. He takes Ishtar back out of the Underworld at Ereshkigal's
command. He acts as her messenger to Anu.
- Sumuqan
- - the cattle god, he resides in the underworld, in
Ereshkigal's court.
- Nergal (Erragal, Erra, Engidudu
- - 'lord who prowls by night') -,
the Unsparing, god of the underworld, husband of Ereshkigal, lover of
Mami. As Erra he is a hunter god, a god of war and plague. He is
submissive to Ea. He can open the doorposts to the underworld to allow
the passage of a soul.
He achieved his post by refusing to stand before an address of Namtar.
When Ereshkigal called him to be punished, he dragged her off of her
throne by the hair, and threatened to decapitate her. She offered him
the position as her consort and he accepted.
He is an evil aspect of Shamash. He allows Enkidu's spirit to visit
Gilgamesh at the behest of Ea. He is sometimes the son of Ea. Prior to
his first journey to the underworld, he builds a chair of fine wood
under Ea's instruction to give to Ereshkigal as a gift from Anu. He is
advised not to take part of the food, drink and entertainment offered
there. He is tempted by Ereshkigal and eventually succumbs, sleeping
with her for seven days. He then takes his leave, angering her. The
gatekeeper lets him out and he climbs the stairway to heaven. He hides
from Namtar in heaven, but is discovered and returns to the underworld
to marry Ereshkigal. In some versions, on the way back to the
Underworld, he seizes control of Namtar's attendant demons and grabs
Ereshkigal by the hair. In this position she offers marriage.
He commands the Sebitti, seven warriors who are also the Pleadies,
they aid in his killing of noisy, over-populous people and animals. He
rallies them when he feels the urge for war, and calls Ishum to light
the way. They prefer to be used in war instead of waiting while Erra
kills by disease.
He regards Marduk as having become negligent and prepares to attack
his people in Babylon. He challenges Marduk in Esagila in
Shuanna/Babylon. Marduk responds that he already killed most of the
people in the flood and would not do so again. He also states that he
could not run the flood without getting off of his throne and letting
control slip. Erra volunteers to take his seat and control things.
Marduk takes his vacation and Erra sets about trying to destroy Babylon.
Ishum intervenes on Babylon's behalf and persuades Erra to stop, but not
before he promises that the other gods will acknowledge themselves as
Erra's servants. (See also Sumerian
Nergal
- Irra
- - plague god, underling of Nergal
- Enmesharra
- - Underworld god
- Lamashtu
- - a dread female demon also known as 'she who erases'.
- Nabu
- - god of writing and wisdom
- Nedu
- - the guardian of the first gate of the underworld. (Dalley p. 175,
"Nergal and Ereshkigal"). Also known as Neti to the Sumerians.
- Ningizzia
- - a guardian of the gate of heaven; a god of the
underworld.
- Tammuz (Dumuzi, Adonis)
- the brother and spouse to Ishtar, or the
lover of her youth. He is a vegetation god. He went into the
underworld and was recovered through the intervention of Ishtar. He is
sometimes the guardian of heaven's gates and sometimes a god of the
underworld. He is friends with Ningizzia. He is exchanged for Ishtar
in the Underworld. He guards the Gate of Anu with Gizzida.
- Belili (Geshtinanna)
- - Tammuz/Dumuzi's sister, 'the one
who always weeps', the wife of Ningishzida.
- Gizzida (Gishzida)
- - son of Ninazu, consort of Belili, doorkeeper
of Anu.
- Nissaba (Nisaba)
- - cereal grain harvest goddess. Her breast
nourishes the fields. Her womb gives birth to the vegetation and grain.
She has abundant locks of hair. She is also a goddess of writing and
learned knowledge. She performs the purification ceremony on Ninurta
after he has slain Anzu and is given his additional names and shrines.
- Dagan (Ugaritic for 'grain')
- - chthonic god of fertility and of the
Underworld. He is paired with Anu as one who acknowledges directives
and courses of action put forth in front of the assembly of the gods.
(See also the Canaanite Dagon)
- Birdu
- - (means 'pimple') an underworld god. Ellil
used him as a messenger to Ninurta
- Sharru
- - god of submission
- Urshambi
- - boatman to Utnapishtim
- Ennugi
- - canal- controller of the Anunnaki.
- Geshtu-e
- - 'ear', god whose blood and intelligence are used by Mami
to create man.
- Adapa (Uan)
- - the first of the seven antediluvian sages who were
sent by Ea to deliver the arts of civilization to mankind. He was from
Eridu. He offered food an water to the gods in Eridu. He went out to
catch fish for the temple of Ea and was caught in a storm. He broke the
South Wind's wing and was called to be punished. Ea advised him to say
that he behaved that way on account of Dumuzi's and Gizzida's absence
from the country. Those gods, who tended Anu's gate, spoke in his favor
to Anu. He was offered the bread and water of eternal life, but Ea
advised against his taking it, lest he end his life on earth.
- Atrahasis and Ut-napishtim,
- Like the Sumerian Ziusudra
(the
Xisuthros of Berossus) or Noah from the Pentateuch, were the long-lived
survivors of the great flood which wiped out the rest of humanity. In
Atrahasis' case, Ellil had grown tired of the noise that the mass of
humanity was making, and after a series of disasters failed to eliminate
the problem, he had Enki release the floodgates to drown them out.
Since Enki had a hand in creating man, he wanted to preserve his
creation, warned Atrahasis, and had him build a boat, with which he
weathered the flood. He also had kept his ear open to Enki during the
previous disasters and had been able to listen to Enki's advice on how
to avoid their full effects by making the appropriate offerings to the
appropriate deities. He lived hundreds of years prior to the flood,
while Utnapishtim lives forever after the flood.
Utnapishtim of Shuruppak was the son of Ubaratutu. His flood has no
reason behind it save the stirrings of the hearts of the Gods. As with
Atrahasis, Utnapishtim is warned to build an ark by Ea. He is also told
to abandon riches and possessions and seek life and to tell the city
elders that he is hated by Enlil and would go to the watery Abyss to
live with Ea via the ark. He loads gold, silver, and the seed of all
living creatures into the ark and all of his craftsmen's children as
well. After Ea advises Enlil on better means to control the human
population, (predators, famine, and plague), Enlil makes Utnapishtim and
his wife immortal, like the gods.
- Etana
- - the human taken to the sky by an eagle. He was the king
of Kish. Ishtar and the Igigi searched for a king
for Kish. Ellil found a throne for Etana and they
declared him the king. He was pious an continued to pray to Shamash, yet he had no son. Shamash told him to
where to find the eagle with the cut wings, who would find for him the
plant of birth. He found the eagle, fed it, and taught it to fly again.
Not being able to find the plant, the eagle had Etana mount on his back
and they journeyed to Ishtar, mistress of birth. On flying up to
heaven, Etana grew scared at the height and went down. Then after some
encouraging dreams tried to ascend to heaven on the eagle again. They
succeeded. Etana had a son, Balih.
- Lugalbanda
- - a warrior-king and, with Ninsun, the progenitor of
Gilgamesh. He is worshipped, being Gilgamesh's
ancestor, by Gilgamesh as a god.
- Gilgamesh (possibly Bilgamesh) and Enkidu
- "Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet I"
The son of the warrior-king Lugalbanda
and the wise goddess Ninsun, Gilgamesh built the
walls of the city Uruk, and the Eanna (house of An) temple complex there, dedicated to Ishtar. He is two-thirds divine and one-third
human. He is tall and a peerless warrior. He is the king and shepherd
of the people of Uruk, but he was very wild, which upset his people, so
they called out to Anu. Anu told Aruru to make a peer for Gilgamesh, so that they could
fight and be kept occupied, so she created the wild-man Enkidu. Enkidu
terrorizes the countryside, and a Stalker, advised by his father, informs
Gilgamesh. They bring a love-priestess to bait Enkidu. She sleeps with
him, and educates him about civilization, Gilgamesh and the
city. Gilgamesh dreams about Enkidu and is anxious to meet him. Enkidu
comes into the city Gilgamesh is on his way to deflower the brides in the
city's "bride-house" and the two fight. They are evenly matched and
become friends.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets II - V"
Gilgamesh decides to strengthen his reputation by taking on Humbaba, Enlil's guardian of the
forest. Enkidu accompanies Gilgamesh and they spend much time in
preparation. Eventually they find the monster and defeat him.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets VI - VIII"
Ishtar offers to become Gilgamesh's lover, but Gilgamesh insults
her, saying that she has had many lovers and has not been faithful to
them. Ishtar asks Anu to send the Bull of Heaven to
punish Gilgamesh, and he does. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat the creature,
but Enkidu falls ill and dies, presumably because the gods are unhappy
that he helped kill Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets IX - XI"
Gilgamesh mourns Enkidu and decides to visit Utnapishtim, the only human who does not die. He
goes to the mountains of Mashu and passes by the guardian scorpion-demons
into the darkness. It becomes light as he enters the Garden of the Gods
and he finds Siduri the Barmaid, to whom
he relates his quest. She sends him to cross the waters of death and he
confronts the boatman, Urshanabi. They cross and Gilgamesh speaks with
Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim recounts the tale of the flood and challenges
Gilgamesh to remain awake for six days and seven nights. He fails, but
Utnapishtim's wife urges him to reveal to Gilgamesh a rejuvinative
plant. Gilgamesh takes it, but looses it to a serpent before returning
to Uruk.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet XII"
Another tablet of the Babylonian Gilgamesh story exists, which is
similar to the Sumerian version of
the tale. Enkidu volunteers to enter the underworld to recover
Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku (drum and throwing stick). Gilgamesh warns
him of the proper etiquette for the underworld, lest Enkidu be kept
there. Enkidu prepares to enter the underworld, and is dressed, scented
and bade good-bye. The Earth seizes him and Gilgamesh weeps. He pleads
for Enkidu's sake to Enlil, Sin, and finally to Ea. Ea tells Nergal to let Enkidu's
ghost escape the underworld and tell Gilgamesh about it. He tells
Gilgamesh of the dead which he has seen there, of those who are cared for
and those who aren't, indicating the sort of judgment and ritual
associated with the afterlife and death.
- Humbaba (Huwawa)
- - this monster was appointed by Ellil to guard
the cedar forest, which is in fact one large tree, the home of the gods,
and terrify mankind. 'His shout is the storm-flood, his mouth, fire,
his breath is death.' (Gardner & Maier p. 105) He has seven cloaks with
which to arm himself. There is a gate and a path in the cedar mountain
for Humbaba to walk on. Gilgamesh and Enkidu attack. Humbaba pleads
for mercy, Enkidu argues against mercy, and Enkidu and Gilgamesh
decapitate him. See also the Sumerian Huwawa.
- The Bull of Heaven
- - this creature was created by Anu to kill
Gilgamesh at Ishtar's
behest. At its snorting, a hole opened up and 200
men fell into it. When it fights Enkidu and Gilgamesh, it throws
spittle and excrement at them. It is killed and set as an offering to
Shamash.
- Anzu
- - a demonic being with lion paws and face and eagle talons
and wings. It was born on the mountain Hehe. Its beak is like a saw,
its hide as eleven coats of mail. It was very powerful. Ellil
appointed him to guard his bath chamber. He envied the Ellil-power
inherent in Ellil's Tablet of Destinies and stole it while Ellil was
bathing. With the Tablet of Destinies, anything he puts into words
becomes reality. He takes advandtage of this by causing Ninurta's
arrows to never reach their target. However, once Ea's advice reached
Ninurta, Anzu was slain by the hero's onslaught.
- aqrabuamelu (girtablilu)
- - scorpion-man, the guardians of the
gates of the underworld. Their "terror is awesome" and their "glance is
death". They guard the passage of Shamash. They appraise Gilgamesh and
speak with him.
Definitions:
As for the underworld Kurnugi (Sumerian for 'land of no return').
It is presided over by Ereshkigal and Nergal. Within the house of
Irkalla (Nergal), the house of darkness, the house of Ashes, no one ever
exits. "They live on dust, their food is mud; their clothes are like
birds' clothes, a garment of wings, and they see no light, living in
blackness." It is full of dust and mighty kings serve others food. In
Ereshkigal's court, heroes and priests reside, as well as Sumuqan and
Belit-tseri. The scorpion-people guard the gates in the mountain to the
underworld which Shamash uses to enter and exit. There are seven gates,
through which one must pass. At each gate, an adornment or article of
clothing must be removed. The gates (gatekeepers?) are named:
Nedu, (En)kishar,
Endashurimma, (E)nuralla, Endukuga/Nerubanda, Endushuba/Eundukuga, and
Ennugigi. Beyond the gates are twelve double doors, wherein it is dark.
Siduri waits there by the waters of death, beyond which, is the Land of
the Living, where Utnapishtim and his wife dwell. Shamash and
Utnapishtim's boatman, Urshanbi, can cross the waters. Egalginga, the
everlasting palace, is a place where Ishtar was held.
[Note: Sykes's use of the phrase "Islamic myth" is misleading as this bit
of cosmology is not considered Islamic doctrine. Bahamut is pre-Islamic,
most likely Arabic. I don't have a second source for Kujara.]
Behemoth then, is usually the male counterpart to Leviathan,
and is a great beast that roams on land. He is sometimes equated with a
hippopotamus, and is alternately listed in the Old Testament as a creature
on the side of
God and as one over whom God has or will triumph over.
(Image from the Oriental Institute at U. Chicago)