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Mythologies . .. .. |
Cernunnos
Great God Pan
orned gods have been worshipped since the dawn of time
and like many widespread Gods, took on many names and local attributes. We are
so used now to books of definite names and characteristics of the various
classical Gods. But they come from a time when communication was often very
patchy between small communities that spoke there own languages and over several
thousand years developed their own local beliefs. We tend to assume a unity,
where in fact there was very little or none at all.
"The young naked ithyphallic god seated on a throne is present at all stages in Ancient Europe, from Proto-Sesklo and Starcevo (6th millenium) to Dimini and the Vinca period. He wears a horned mask. He is also represented standing, holding his sexual organ with both hands ..."
Horns are a symbol of strength and virility, and also a source of protection. Horns would be hung over doors, much as we might use horse shoe's today. At Horn-church (in Essex) horns were hung in the east part of the church. Within the temple of Apollo at Delos there was a famous altar built entirely from Stag horns. The Romans placed horns within the temples of Diana. The Goat's horn seems to have been the original for the 'horn of plenty', the symbol of fruitfulness.
"Horns were connected with the oldest Tantric belief concerning male vitality: that by suppression of ejaculation, mystic energy mounts up the spine to the head and flowers forth in wisdom and magic power, made visible by the horns."
Barbara Walker
In Celtic Europe, horn headed deities lived under a variety of names and as the horned God's like Cernunos and his followers became part of the Wild Hunt. Cernunos is difficult to date exactly, but at least we know was worshipped extensively across Europe by the 1st century AD. The name itself is Roman derived and means 'Horned One' (or perhaps 'God of the Deer's Head'), and has only been found on a single representation made by sailors from the Gallic Parisii tribe in the 1st century AD. But over 60 images of what we now call Cernunnos have been found across Europe [the image of Cernunnos shown above is from the famous Gundestrup cauldron. A word of caution is needed here though, as this late 2nd century BC silver cauldron was found, in a bog, in Jutland. Although the makers and users of the cauldron undoubtedly knew some Celtic beliefs, the mythology of the cauldron, complete with Elephants, may not be Celtic] . The exact name of the God(s) of course probably varied from tribe to tribe or region by region.
It is usually assumed that Cernunnos was an ancient diety in Britian as well, and this may well be true, but the earliest evidence os from a Celtic silver coin of AD 20 (found at Petersfield, Hants), and constitites (to date) the only pre-Roman evidence of his cult. On this coin he is shown with a solar wheel between his horns. However other finds of a deity with Bull horns have been found and may be related. Female horned figures have been found too.
Cernunnos is shown with horns, those of a stag, and is usually portrayed as a mature man with long hair and a beard wearing a torc the Celtic symbol of nobility. His image is often shown carrying other torcs in his hands or hanging from his horns. He is usually portrayed seated and cross-legged, in the meditative or shamanic position, very like the image of Pashupati, Lord of the Animals, recovered from Mohenjo Daro in India.
Cernunnos is nearly always shown with animals, in particular the stag. He is also shown with a serpent with the horns of a ram - an image known from nowhere else - but associated with knowledge. Other animals include bulls, dogs and rats. With these animals he became associated with the ancient idea of the Master (or in other cultures it culd be the Mistress) of the Animals or the Lord of the Hunt.
The idea of a Master or Mistress of the Animals is a very ancient one and probably goes back as far as human history. On Minoan Cretan seals there are representations of Satyr’s and a young male god who is master of the animals - god of vegetation and the wild life but there was also a mistress of the animals, on one gem-stone she is shown between two Lions, one male and one female, on others holding animals by the neck or legs.
The most significant find of Cernunnos in Britian comes from Cirencester where he is shown on a stone plaque, holding two Ram-headed snakes and with purses filled with coins.The number of representations of Cernunnos with bags of coins, or similar, seems strongly to indicate that (as with Hermes for the Greeks and Romans) he was also a God of abundance (and probably good luck). This may be a later aspect, that derives from his original involvement with Nature, and in particular, the virile Stag. The snakes (often Ram-headed) shown with him may also represent his links to the underworld.
In Britian at least, non-antlered representations of the same or a similar God?, with the horns of a Bull, or Ram, or Goat, appear, but were common throughout particularly non-Mediterranean Europe from as early as at least the late Bronze Age. Horned, quite often phallic deities abound in early Danish art. Horned birds have been found, including a wonderful horned Swan on a bronze bowl from Biesenbrow. Obviously the horned helmet (which the Vikings seem never to have actually worn) may be linked to these horned God aspects (there is one shown on one of the Gundestrup Cauldren plates).
Was the cult of the horned God, imported into Britian during Roman times, or re-emphasised, or simply turned into art at this time? Whatever happened, the number of finds of Horned-God art increase enormously, particularly from Northern Britian (the home ground of the Brigantian confederation and essentially non-Roman). The figures are often ithyphallic, with horns, shields, and spears and sometimes accompanied by the Bull or a Stag. Are these one deity, or many, or different aspects of the same God, and when did the Roman Mercury (the Greek Hermes) start to influence these images? Anne Ross for instance states that British art received a new stimulus during the Roman period, and rather than being swamped, brought out their native genius.
Miranda Green (The Gods of the Celts) speculates that various God's were given horns at various times in their fertility aspect, and as a sign of their power, strength and even aggression. At Maryport, where many horned figures have been found, even a small Venus figure has been given horns. Miranda Green also wonders whether this is related to shape-changing, and if we look at shamanistic practices that have survived this seems more than possible.
Connected with this we may also mention the Celtic Sun-God,
Lugh, and Merlin.
The earliest stories of Merlin talk of a wild man of the
woods, born of no father, and there is a report of his having a hairy pelt, such
as has been seen on no other child (but see also the stories of Great God
Pan and his rejection at birth). Merlin often preferred the company of the
animals and the wild places of Britian to the artificial and formal court of
King Arthur.
Amongst the Siberian Evenks, Eksheri was the master of animals and fish, thought of as holding the threads of their destiny in his hands and the shamans always appealed to him before a hunt.
Greek and Roman river Gods were often shown as bearded men, crowned with the Sedge plant, and often with horns on their heads. They often have a vase from which water flows, to indicate their function of keeping the rivers and streams constantly flowing.
And lest it be thought that this was solely a male preserve, here Isis, one of the most popular Goddesses throughout the later ancient world is here shown with horns. Her face looks just like so many later representations of the Madonna.
Horns also represented the Moon as the crescent shape.
"At the month's beginning to shine on earth, thou shalt show two horns to mark six days. On the seventh day divide the crown in two. On the fourteenth day, turn thy full face."
Larousse Encyclopaedia of Mythology
[Instructions given to Sin on the day of creation by Marduk]
In India at Mohenjo-Daro there was Pashupati - Lord of the (Wild) Animals - shown in the lotus position with animals in front of him. This cult includes the sign of the lingam which became associated with Shiva. Shiva dwelt in the mountains, forests and deserts but his flock was all living beings, including humankind. It was believed that the differences between Gods, Humans and Animals was a continuum differing in role and level in a continuous hierarchy. Within the God is still the animal, within the animal the potential for humanity.
In order to watch over his flock, Shiva created the Masters of Knowledge (the Vidyeshvaras) who are seen in their form as forest spirits, Nymphs, Faery's and so on - the 'protective' spirits of creation. Pan resembles Shiva, who also became aspects of Dionysus, in many ways. Shiva was the presence of the wild places, and his sanctuaries, like Pan's, were built in caves ans isolated places.
Bes, a popular Egyptian God was an interesting mixture reflecting several of the attributes found in the Pan-like Gods. He was God of the dance and music, but also of war and the destructive forces of nature. Bes was usually shown as a dwarf with a large bearded head with his tongue sticking out. The face has a flat nose, bushy eyebrows and hair, and large projecting ears. Bes wears the skin of an animal and a tail that hangs down to touch the ground. On his head there is a tiara of feathers. As a god of music he is sometimes shown playing a harp, as a warrior he may wear a short military tunic and hold a shield and a short sword.
In Peru, Pachacamac was the horned son of the Sun, and God of the volcanic fires. He was considered an important God of nature, bringer of life and death (often at random), but as with many fire gods, also the bringer of knowledge and creativity. Tony van Renterghem also found a small 'devil like' figure with horns and phallus being sold as a good luck symbol in the Canary Islands.
Puck
This figure is known from elsewhere, for example, Robin Goodfellow or Puck is described in the same way as the Greek Pan, with small horns on his head and playing the pipes. Animals are often seen following in his wake. But by Elizabethan times, Puck (or Pooka / Puca / Phouka / Pooka / Phooka / Pooken as he was known variously; Pwcca in Wales) had been downgraded to a mischievous nature spirit who could curdle milk, lead strangers astray or, at least in keeping with his past, molest maidens (though he was also known to take revenge for maidens spurned by their lovers). He became associated with southern England and wore a suit a green and was solitary but friendly with other faeries and humans, if they approached him properly.
Puck is a hairy being, red or brownish in colour (in many tales it is hard to distinguish him from the Brownies), and he may have the Goat's feet, that links him to other Pan-like beings. He is known to be able to shape-shift, but is usually less than human-sized. Although he was not associated with domesticated animals (like Pan, who was always the God of the Sheep and Goat herders), he loves the wild animals, especially of the woods, and is the protector of the trees and plants.
Puck became the epitome of the trickster, the spirit that can help but also lead astray. Also the scapegoat to blame for unexplained happenings, or one's we don't want to own up to!
A similar figure was attached to Saint Nicholas (in his role as Santa Claus) in the Slavic countries where he was sometimes described as the 'Dark Helper', and is described as a smallish figure dressed in black, with horns, and large, pointed ears. He dances around and may scare the children, in typical trickster fashion.
In Ireland, a Goat may still be called a 'puck', and in the Puck Fair, a Goat is paraded through the streets as the Puck King with horns decked in green ribbons. Accompanying the Goat, is a young maid, amongst scenes of much celebration and merriment, greatly aided by the local brews.
In Wales this role was taken by the Pwca (or Pwcca), and he had a retinue of Hobgoblin and Brownie like creatures known as the Bwca, who generally helped around the farm or household, but could be nasty if not looked after properly or treated with proper respect. An offering of Goat's milk, or barley bread might be left by the hearth, or on a flat, cup-marked stone in the fields.
In Cornwall, this same figure, was the Bucca (the word 'buck' is from the same root, and meant horned one) who helped protect and ensure good harvests for both farmers and fishermen. He was placated with bread, beer and fish. Nigel Jackson (Masks of Misrule) mentions a light and a dark aspect to the Bucca, representing these same forces within all of us.
There are many other local deites that seem to have the same roots: the Boggarts, the Bugan (Cheshire), Buggane (Manx), Bogles (Lincolnshire) and so on.
Puck was always distinguished from the normal faery's:
" 'Sprinkle a plenty salt on the biscuit, Dan, and I'll eat it with you. That'll show you the sort of person I am. Some of us' - he went on, with his mouth full - 'couldn't abide Salt, or Horse-shoes over a door, or Mountain-ash berries, or Running Water, or Cold Iron, or the sound of Church Bells. But I'm Puck!' "
Robin Goodfellow
Robin Goodfellow acquired his own history and was believed to be the offspring of Oberon, King of the Faery, and a mortal country girl. He was unusually left with his mother to grow up, but as with so many faery's he had the ability to shape shift. He was very handsome when he grew up, but thought to be knowing in the old ways. Many country girls found him irristiable and there are still thought to be many of his descendents living today. He may still also be seen, but only now in the wilder parts of the countryside, and normally at dusk.
He could be confused with the Brownies, the traditional house / farm faery's, or even with Puck:
"Robin goodfellow, he that sweepes the harth, and the house cleane, riddles for the countrey maides, and does all other drudgerie, while they are at hot-cocles."
Attis was also associated with Pan pipes and one of his legends tells of his being a Phrygian shepherd, who was beloved of the Mother of the Gods. He was normally worshipped with Cybele who may be shown playing with a Lion or driven in a chariot by Lions. The evergreen Pine was revered as his symbol and was paraded during the Spring festivals and finally laid to rest in the temple of the Mother, decked in funeral purple, on March 22nd.
Herne the Hunter
Herne the Hunter has become very popular in the 20th century but his actual origin is obscure, though he resembles the Lord of the Animals and the Hunt mentioned above. It is possible that Cerunos was shortened to Cern and then to Hern, but that can only be speculation. Herne has always been associated in Britian with Windsor Forest and the famous Herne's Oak. Today he is often associated with the legend of the Wild Hunt, though this is a very ancient myth and many other figures have been named as its leader. The coming of the hunt master was announced by the baying of large hounds and the blast of his horn above the sound of the storm. To the Christians he came for people's souls, again an echo of their own fears of the Pagan Gods.
The Wild Hunt
Herne the Hunter is the most common name associated with the Wild Hunt, that pack of hounds (the 'Dogs of Hell'), and riders belonging to Gwyn ap Nudd, Lord of the Underworld.
But other names are known. In Oswestry, a local wandering fiddler Ned Pugh (there is another story associated with Ned about his disappearing underground) took to the bugle and became chief huntsman for the Wild Hunt.
Each Halloween the hunt was said to hunt below Mount Plynlimon, through the Black Mountains, and through the wild places around Aberdare. Hearing his bugle, or the cries of the dogs was considered a foreboding of death.
Pagan worship has no God of evil, such as Christianity promoted in the person of the devil - though certain spirits needed to be regularly propiated to stop them from doing the individual or their family harm. Pagan belief is inclusive and recognises that both humankind and the Gods themselves are capable of good and evil - at least at the level we can normally perceive. But Christianity, like the Jewish beliefs from which it derived demanded an inclusive God : 'You shalt have no other God …'. So unlike Pagan belief which looked upon the Gods of other tribes as not their's, or in classical cultures, absorbed and assimilated other Gods that they found useful or attractive, Christianity promoted Yaweh to be the one and only God. And that God needed a mechanism to explain the continuing presence of evil in the world. The hardest question we all have to answer as parents, is when our children ask us why a wise and loving God allows so much hate and evil in this beautiful world.
Belief in Pan-like and horn-headed deities persisted, especially in the countryside, long after the official introduction of Chrsitianity. To the Christian priests he represented all that could not be suppressed and absorbed into their religion. Thus he came to represent the fallen Angel Lucifer and the followers of the Old Ways, often old women not capable of defending themselves, Witches. The persecuters to defend and propogate their own jobs (for which they were often well paid) created the myths that the poor creatures under extreme torture came to repeat - as who wouldn't.
These show trials - like those under Stalin in Russia, came to have their own mythology and tests of conformity to normality. In 1486, two warped monks, Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger produced The Malleus Maleficarum, or "Hammer of the Witches" which encased this mythology of the devil and his followers. Satanism, which had never existed before this time - was given it's own story and voice and used to destroy those who could not defend themselves.
Before the 15th Century, the devil had no set image. But the Inquisitors seized on the image of Pan and his European counterparts, in particular Puck or Robin Goodfellow, and used the wilder, sexual side of his nature (always an anathema to sex-starved monks of course) and used this as the very image Satan - evil incarnate. In fact, as pagans are well aware, Satanism is a purely Christian heresy and as remote from Paganism as is possible.
"It is not the least curious circumstance that from this silvan deity the modern nations of Europe have borrowed the degrading and unsuitable emblems of the goat's visage and form, the horns, hoofs, and tail, with which they have depicted the author of evil when it pleased him to show himself on earth. So that the alteration of a single word would render Pope's well-known line more truly adapted to the fact, should we venture to read - 'And Pan to Satan lends his heathen horn.' "
Sir Walter Scott (Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft)
Just in case it be thought that this view of Pan-like deities as the Devil be just early superstition, rejected by a modern church. This is from a modern 'Christian' article on the Internet:
"Most modern witches deny that they are followers of Satan and claim that their pagan concept of diverse gods does not match the Christian concept of the devil. Although Wiccans deny their association with the devil, they readily admit that they worship 'a Horned God named Pan.' It is an inescapable fact that Pan is the universal symbol for Satan. Half-human and half-goat, Pan remains one of the most enduring and compelling symbols for the anti-Christ. Instead of God incarnate in man, as with Jesus, we see man joined to animal - one that is historically representative of the basest of animal and sexual passions.
The ancient cult of Pan involved rites of passage. In the Rites of Pan, music and sometimes drugs were used to entice spirits to possess the ritual's participants. Possession by Pan, from which we get the word "panic," often results in an obsession with sex and a need for immediate gratification. We see the sociological manifestations of this anti-Christ spirit everywhere in today's society."
Is this ignorance, or worse, a wilful misunderstanding? The author later goes on to imply a direct association between Wicca and Satanism, two creeds that are could exist in two different universes, for any real similarities between them.
Bibliography
Eric L.
Fitch, In Search of Herne the Hunter, Capall Bann (1994)
Nigel Aldcroft
Jackson, The Call of the Horned Piper, Capall Bann (?)
E.C. Cawte, Alex Helm
and N. Peacock, Ritual Animal Disguise, D.S. Brewer - for the Folklore Society
(1978)
Tony van Renterghem, When Santa Was a Shaman,
Llwellyn (1995)
last updated : 23rd
June 1999
© Phillip J. Brown (1998 -
2000)